Introduction
Radioactive waste management involves various administrative and technical activities associated with waste generation, treatment/preparation, storage, transport, and disposal. Concurrently, radioactive waste management is not only the waste generated by the nuclear power plant but also the waste generated by the decommissioning of nuclear facilities and environmental remediation. Radioactive waste management requires the optimal management of the entire life cycle from ‘generation’ to ‘disposal’ to achieve the best economic, environmental, and social benefits and contribute to sustainable development.
The International Atomic Energy Agency and the Korean Radioactive Waste Agency are cooperatively developing a digital system according to the radioactive waste management system, to display information on radioactive waste in real-time and to evaluate its disposal [1]. In the early 1990s, some experts proposed to develop a database of radioactive waste management. In 2011, the Regulations on the Administration of Radioactive Waste Safety stated that the Department of Environmental Protection under the State Council together with the Department of the Nuclear Industry and other relevant departments established a national radioactive waste management information system to achieve information sharing [2]. Several nuclear power plants have established their radioactive waste information management systems in the nuclear energy industry, such as the Qinshan Phase I Nuclear Power Plant, which uses a three-tier radioactive waste management hierarchy [3]. The plant manager at Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant is responsible for managing the plant, including the plant’s three waste committees and three waste management groups, and each of the relevant functional divisions and sections in their way [4]. The Sanmen Nuclear Power Plant, using a combination of decentralized and centralized waste management paths, has developed a committee, which is headed by the company’s Deputy General Manager in charge of the Physical Health Section and the directors of all company divisions [5].
The radioactive waste management process will last for decades and centuries. The characteristic knowledge information generated during radioactive waste treatment/disposal is summarized, collected, processed, and handled through knowledge management (KM). This valuable data information will provide the basis for the whole radioactive waste management process. The knowledge information handled by the KM system provides the theoretical basis for developing new waste treatment solutions or methods.
Materials and Methods
This literature review collected and studied the relative research reports and patents on radioactive waste management from China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Web of Science, Elsevier, SpringerLink, and other databases, especially the application cases of information management and KM to promote KM innovation and development in the whole radioactive waste management process.
Results and Discussion
1. The Definition and Development of Knowledge Management
1) The definition of knowledge management
Different researchers demonstrate different perspectives on understanding and defining KM. In particular, von Krogh [6] thought of KM as the identification and exploitation of collective knowledge in an organization to help it compete. Alavi and Leidner [7] view KM as a process involving multiple activities, including the four basic processes of creating, storing/retrieving, transferring, and applying knowledge, which is categorized into creating internal knowledge, acquiring external knowledge, storing knowledge in documents and schedules, updating knowledge, and sharing knowledge within and outside the organization. Kulkarni et al. [8] consider KM as the process by which organizations leverage and extract value from their intellectual or knowledge assets. We define KM according to the expressions of several scholars on KM above, as the integrated management of multiple processes from knowledge creation, identification, storage, transfer, and application by an organization to improve organizational innovation and performance to give it an advantage in competition [9].
2) The development of knowledge management
Traditional KM is intraorganizational, communicated mainly offline and step by step. “Intraorganizational” means that KM has a distinct organizational boundary and that knowledge creation, storage, sharing, and application all occur within the organization [10]. “Offline” indicates that member interactions are face-to-face and take the form of formal or informal communication. “Step by step” means that knowledge creation, storage, transfer and share, and application process in KM is progressive and cyclical [7]. A typical example is the Japanese company Toyota, which is good at creating an environment of knowledge sharing and innovation, constantly establishing new knowledge and applying it to improving production processes and product development in a cyclical process.
A large number of multinational companies and innovation alliances developed cross-regional and cross-organizational KM practices at the beginning of the 21st century, with the wave of globalization [11]. Informed KM involves organizations informing part of their KM processes with the help of information technology so that KM can be performed more efficiently within or between organizations. A typical case is Huawei, which not only has a KM platform—3-management system (3MS)—but a knowledge sharing community—Hi [12].
In recent years, digital KM has been regarded by enterprises as a strategic and competitive important management tool, which can bring great value to enterprises, with the development and application of artificial intelligence and digital technology [13]. Digital KM refers to autonomous, intelligent, and process-wide digital KM within or between organizations based on the relevant definitions of digitization and KM [14]. The shadow learning theory proposed by Beane [15] provides theoretical support for the current learning mechanism of digital KM. Shadow learning is a combination of knowledge storage and transfer in digital KM, with the most significant feature being that employees follow the machine, rather than the old practice of employees.
KM is based on information management, and it is a new stage in developing information management. Management systems that implement and enforce this concept of KM have emerged as the application of KM continues to grow. Knowledge identification, acquisition, development, decomposition, storage, transmission, and sharing and knowledge-generated value evaluation, all link together to form a characteristic knowledge chain—a KM system [16].
2. The Application of Information Management Systems in Radioactive Waste Management
1) Radioactive waste information management system designed by Gansu Nuclear and Radiation Safety Center
The radioactive waste information management system designed by the Gansu Nuclear and Radiation Safety Center [17] contains radioactive source system support equipment, application software platform, and front-end monitoring equipment as well as video system equipment. The radioactive waste information management system is connected to the monitoring center and the Gansu Nuclear and Radiation Safety Center.
The system enables the management of radioactive source (waste) information for the entire radioactive waste repository and provides radioactive source (waste) information management, such as incoming, and informs modification and outgoing. The radioactive waste register manages the registration of different radioactive sources (waste) types. The information registered for different radioactive sources (waste) types differs; thus, when the radioactive source (waste) type is selected, the system will automatically jump to the registration form for that source (waste) type and enter or select the corresponding information to complete the radioactive waste information registration.
2) Radioactive waste information management system with SQL Server 2000 designed by China Institute of Atomic Energy
Fig. 1 illustrates the radioactive waste information management system with SQL Server 2000 [18] designed by the China Institute of Atomic Energy. The functional design of the system (1) enables the browsing of various information on waste, such as waste source, waste type, packaging form, nuclide type, and other information; (2) allows various database operations, including updating data records, adding data, deleting data, maintaining the database, etc.; (3) quickly searches for the information the user needs and filters unnecessary data using a combination of inquiring; (4) combines data from the database in any field way and aggregates statistical data reports; (5) designs electronic authentication module; and (6) develops a web-based database query module, which builds on the above functions and implements queries on the web. Fig. 1 shows the structure.
The system avoids the traditional method of transcription and uses computerized information technology to store relevant information, thereby reducing the probability of errors caused by manual input, decreasing staff stress, and eliminating the likelihood of discarding paper documents.
3) Radioactive waste retrieval and preparation management information system designed by the China Institute of Atomic Energy
Fig. 2 shows the radioactive waste retrieval and conditioning management information system designed by the China Institute of Atomic Energy [19]. The design of the radioactive waste retrieval and conditioning project management information system includes general, modular structure, and database designs.
The management system is categorized into four business processing subsystems, including planning management, production management, materials management, and equipment and tools management. Additionally, the system includes a comprehensive query system, statistical analysis system for maintenance needs and security needs as well as system maintenance and user management two systems to make the system more convenient and rapid to provide management and scientific research support, giving full play to the role of the original accumulation of information. Fig. 2 illustrates the overall structure of the system.
The problem that the detection of radioactive waste characteristics, such as the present status of radioactive waste and the activity of radioactive waste has to be performed by staff, cannot be avoided, thereby increasing the exposure of staff.
4) A radioactive waste management system for nuclear power plants designed by CNNC Environmental Protection Co., Ltd
Fig. 3 shows the radioactive waste management system for nuclear power plants [20] designed by CNNC Environmental Protection Co., Ltd. The system exhibits the following main functions. First, it is responsible for radioactive waste management, including the arrangement and data statistics corresponding to the management activities from waste classification to final disposal. Second, it conducts scientific research on radioactive waste management techniques, corporate communication on waste minimization, and staff skills and awareness training. Third, it develops waste minimization strategies, waste minimization outlines, and annual waste minimization report preparation. Fourth, it interfaces with regulatory authorities to facilitate a quick and comprehensive understanding of the overall radioactive waste management at nuclear power plants. Fig. 3 illustrates the system architecture.
The overall structure of the system is clear and complete, with a strong focus on safety in radioactive waste management activities and the production of relevant safety quality reports. However, the disadvantage of the system is that the corresponding management channel for information related to waste status, activity concentration changes, etc., during radioactive waste treatment and conditioning remains unavailable although the system manages the radioactive waste in a categorized manner. Collecting and collating this information can provide technical support for researchers to further study radioactive waste disposal.
5) A radioactive waste storage management system designed by Feng et al
Fig. 4 shows the radioactive waste storage management system designed by Feng et al. [21]. The radioactive waste storage management system includes a backend server, a data transfer module, and a client. Additionally, the management system includes a move-out detection module, a particle detector, and a label sensor. The client includes a label number writing module, an information entry module, a three-dimensional (3D) map display module, and the label number writing module. The information entry module is related to the backend server. The backend server includes a 3D map data module, and the 3D map data module is connected to the 3D map display module. Fig. 4 shows the overall structure and key components.
The system enables users to check information on radioactive waste by logging in to the client as well as to modify the radioactive waste number and related information, which can be entered into a database on the backend server to facilitate later management. Additionally, the relevant 3D map can be displayed in the 3D map display module of the client by creating a 3D map of the radioactive waste storage area and storing the relevant 3D map data in the 3D map data module of the backend server.
3. The Application of Knowledge Management in Radioactive Waste Management
1) Knowledge management system designed by the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute
The KM office in the Japan Atomic Energy Agency not only develops the new tools and organizational structures required to implement the KM system but also provides executive-level support for data source integrated analysis and evaluation.
Fig. 5 shows the overall structure and key components of the KM system [22]. The Japanese radioactive waste knowledge base is a key component of the KM system. The Japanese radioactive waste knowledge base is associated with the sectoral knowledge production departments (departments related to radioactive waste generation, treatment, and disposal). The knowledge production departments manage radioactive waste, store knowledge of radioactive waste in the radioactive waste knowledge base, and update the knowledge in the base. The radioactive waste knowledge base is a dynamic entity that is constantly being supplemented with new knowledge and is different from traditional databases. It applies an electronic library of all relevant information and documentation for radioactive waste applications and is utilized to generate application-specific subdatabases that will be frozen and archived as required.
2) Application of the knowledge management system at the German Federal Radioactive Waste Disposal Company
The German Federal Government’s Radioactive Waste Disposal Company, which has over 50 years of experience in handling nuclear waste, has achieved a considerable knowledge level in terms of subject matter and volume. This knowledge exists in different organizations in the field of nuclear waste disposal. Additionally, the entire body of knowledge has not been collated with Germany’s withdrawal from nuclear energy and the decline of national mining activities, resulting in the loss of much expertise.
Therefore, the German Federal Company for Radioactive Waste Disposal decided to develop a KM system to establish a KM infrastructure that would connect the company’s internal KM platforms and knowledge carriers. The results of current research and development are fed into the “learning organization” in addition to the collection and distribution of existing knowledge. To this end, KM provides a digital information base into which the results of current research and development also enter as a knowledge store. This knowledge base includes over 14,000 documents, most of which are studies and scientific publications, on various topics related to the final radioactive waste disposal in geological formations, whereas the database of this management system is associated with and provides information support to other national and international scientific institutions [23].
The KM system developed in Germany stores and organizes knowledge about radioactive waste disposal while sharing it with other countries, providing technical support for methods and programs for radioactive waste disposal in other countries.
3) Application of knowledge management in the European Joint Program on Radioactive Waste Management
KM is a core activity of the European Joint Program on Radioactive Waste Management (EURAD), which has contributed to the development of the EURAD guidance program, a program for implementing radioactive waste management to guide geological disposal, drawing on the experience of advanced national and European Union programs [24]. The program has been developed for over 40 years and uses different technical and strategic approaches to developing deep geological disposal repositories [24].
The program is planned to be implemented in five phases: start-up, site selection, site characterization, construction, operation, and closure. The guidance program explains how activities and existing knowledge can be used for each phase to achieve the seven themes of overall radioactive waste management, namely, project management, predisposal, engineering barrier systems, geoscience, design and optimization, siting and permitting, and safety case [24].
4. Radioactive Waste Knowledge Management Integrated System Designed by the Author
The above-listed examples of information systems and KM applications have played a significant role in radioactive waste management activities but have not incorporated significant KM elements. Therefore, the author designed and proposed a comprehensive KM system of radioactive waste based on the above application cases, which was used to realize the comprehensive information management of radioactive waste (Fig. 6).
1) Radioactive waste knowledge management system integrated management process
The radioactive waste from nuclear power plants is characterized by waste object formation and information characterization, such as radioactivity, physical properties, chemical properties, and other waste safety-related characteristics before, during, and after treatment and conditioning. The information can be transferred to the Radioactive KM System and the Radioactive Waste Information Management System, which store the information in the radioactive knowledge subdatabase and the radioactive waste information subdatabase, respectively. The Radioactive KM office classifies, organizes, and summarizes the knowledge information in the Radioactive KM subdata. Waste managers, regulators, experts, or even the general public access the Radioactive KM subdatabase by logging into the relevant radioactive KM office to view and understand information related to radioactive waste management.
The top managers and experts of the nuclear power plant combine their experience in work and cutting-edge technologies to update the radioactive knowledge iteratively and indicate new suggestions for radioactive waste management. Top managers of nuclear power plants keep an eye on radioactive waste management to better authorize work and provide the required resources.
After radioactive waste characterization, it is categorized according to its radioactive activity into high-, medium-, low-, and very low-level radioactive waste, and the classification information is uploaded to the radioactive waste information management system, which stores the information in the radioactive waste information subdatabase. The waste information subdatabase provides a quick response (QR) code based on its relevant information, which is sprayed on top of the waste container or outer packaging by robotic operation. The complete waste is transported to the disposal depot for disposal, and the QR code information on the waste package is scanned by radio frequency scanning identification technology to select the disposal method (deep, medium-depth, near surface, and landfill geological disposal for high-, medium-, low-, and very low-level radioactive waste, respectively).
The radioactive knowledge subdatabase and the radioactive waste information subdatabase form a complete database, which is accessed by staff through the client to enable real-time radioactive waste management monitoring, timely guidance and arrangements for waste management activities, and simultaneous data information verification in the KM database.
2) Radioactive waste knowledge management integrated system innovation points
Two innovations in the system design involve the integration of a KM system into this integrated system and the use of QR two-dimensional (2D) code technology and radio frequency identification (RFID) [25]. Information on waste safety-related characteristics is summarized, collected, processed, and finally stored in a database through a KM system. This valuable data information will provide the basis for the whole process management of radioactive waste and can be used as design input for experimental studies associated with waste safety management. The knowledge information is processed through the KM system as a theoretical basis for designing new waste treatment solutions or methods. Further, this information will be stored as results and experience to avoid loss of knowledge resources.
The time and number of times that personnel are in close contact with radioactive waste can be reduced and radiation-optimized protection for waste management can be achieved using QR 2D codes and RFID scanning identification technology. The QR code generated by the database can be scanned to collect information on the current radioactive activity, physical properties, chemical properties, curing time, etc. Additionally, the origin of the waste can be traced by scanning the QR code information to evaluate and track the safety of the radioactive waste.
Technical Comprehensive Analysis
This paper summarizes and compares the current technologies of radioactive waste management systems. Table 1 shows that a radioactive waste management system can ensure the integrity of the information recorded in the process of radioactive waste management and avoid the loss of information. Therefore, waste information storage is one of the crucial indicators. All of the management technologies shown in Table 1 exhibit the technology of waste information management. Knowledge becomes a core asset for the enterprise. Waste information needs to be transformed into KM for application. Only a few systems, such as the radioactive waste management system for nuclear power plants, the KM system of the Japanese Atomic Energy Research Institute, and the Radioactive Waste KM Integrated System, transform radioactive waste information into KM. In the nuclear field, integrated system KM of radioactive waste reduces the time and number of personnel’s close contact with radioactive waste using QR code and RFID technology and realizes radiation protection optimization of radioactive waste management.
Conclusion
The time scale of radioactive waste management ranges from a decade to hundreds and thousands of years or even millions of years; thus, the period of radioactive waste management will be longer. KM needs to be applied to the unified management of its information to ensure the integrity of the recorded radioactive waste management information and to avoid the loss of this information, and its application is very necessary.
The radioactive waste KM comprehensive system designed by the author, which includes the ‘radioactive waste information management system,’ ‘radioactive waste information database,’ ‘KM system of radioactive waste,’ ‘radioactive waste knowledge database,’ ‘experts and leaders management,’ and ‘KM office,’ providing the new knowledge that was previously unknown or unavailable. The KM system collates the radioactive waste information to ensure the integrity of information recorded in the radioactive waste management process and avoid information loss. The system uses QR code and RFID technology which reduce the time and number of personnel in close contact with radioactive waste, achieve radiation protection optimization of radioactive waste management, and transform waste information into knowledge for management which helps nuclear power plant operators apply existing knowledge, handle outdated and invalid knowledge, and reduce the risk of operation mistakes.
The French National Radioactive Waste Management Agency website provides access to radioactive waste inventory stored in France, with sufficient information, such as time, region, generator, waste type, and a direct map demonstrating the results. The Nuclear Decommissioning Authority website provides access to the amount of waste generated by each of the major radioactive waste generators in the United Kingdom. The International Atomic Energy Agency website provides access to the amount of storage and disposal of each waste type available in each member country, as well as a graphical display of the related data. At present, China is lagging behind major nuclear energy developing countries in terms of progress in developing a national radioactive waste management information system, and establishing nuclear energy is at an unprecedented stage and will continue to increase in the future in China, there is a strong need for the research, establishment, and application of a radioactive waste KM system as soon as possible.
The designs and recommendations presented in this review are for reference only to promote systematic and intelligent management of the entire radioactive waste process and sustainable nuclear energy development.
PDF Links
PubReader
ePub Link
XML Download
Full text via DOI
Download Citation 
Print 
